Sunday, July 13, 2008

Maharana Pratap

Born: May 9, 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan
Father's Name: Maharana Udai Singh II
Mother's Name: Rani Jeevant Kanwar
Died: January 29, 1597 in Chavand

Maharana Pratap was born on May 9th 1540 in Kumbhalgarh, Rajasthan. His father was Maharana Udai Singh II and his mother was Rani Jeevant Kanwar. Maharana Udai Singh II ruled the kingdom of Mewar, with his capital at Chittor. Maharana Pratap was the eldest of twenty-five sons and hence given the title of Crown Prince. He was destined to be the 54th ruler of Mewar, in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs. In 1567, when Crown Prince Pratap Singh was only 27, Chittor was surrounded by the Mughal forces of Emperor Akbar. Maharana Udai Singh II decided to leave Chittor and move his family to Gogunda, rather than capitulate to the Mughals. The young Pratap Singh wanted to stay back and fight the Mughals but the elders intervened and convinced him to leave Chittor, oblivious of the fact that this move from Chittor was going to create history for all times to come.

In Gogunda, Maharana Udai Singh II and his nobles set up a temporary government of the kindom of Mewar. In 1572, the Maharana passed away, leaving the way for Crown Prince Pratap Singh to become the Maharana. However, in his later years, the late Maharana Udai Singh II had fallen under the influence of his favorite queen, Rani Bhatiyani, and had willed that her son Jagmal should ascend to the throne. As the late Maharana's body was being taken to the cremation grounds, Pratap Singh, the Crown Prince decided to accompany the dead body of the Maharana. This was a departure from tradition as the Crown Prince did not accompany the body of the departed Maharana but instead prepared to ascend the throne, such that the line of succession remained unbroken. Pratap Singh, in deference to his father's wishes, decided to let his half-brother Jagmal become the next king. However, knowing this to be disastrous for Mewar, the late Maharana's nobles, especially the Chundawat Rajputs, forced Jagmal to leave the throne to Pratap Singh. Unlike Bharat, Jagmal did not willingly give up the throne. He swore revenge and left for Ajmer, to join the armies of Akbar, where he was offered a jagir - the town of Jahazpur - in return for his help. Meanwhile, Crown Prince Pratap Singh became Maha Rana Pratap Singh I, 54th ruler of Mewar in the line of the Sisodiya Rajputs.
The year was 1572. Pratap Singh had just become the Maharana of Mewar and he had not been back in Chittor since 1567. His old fort and his home beckoned to him. The pain of his father's death, and the fact that his father had not been able to see Chittor again, troubled the young Maharana deeply. But he was not the only one troubled at this time. Akbar had control of Chittor but not the kingdom of Mewar. So long as the people of Mewar swore by their Maharana, Akbar could not realize his ambition of being the Jahanpanah of Hindustan. He had sent several emissaries to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to sign a treaty but the letter was only willing to sign a peace treaty whereby the sovereignty of Mewar would be intact. In the course of the year 1573, Akbar sent six diplomatic missions to Mewar to get Rana Pratap to agree to the former's suzerainty but Rana Pratap turned down each one of them. The last of these missions was headed by Raja Man Singh, the brother-in-law of Akbar himself. Maharana Pratap, angered that his fellow Rajput was aligned with someone who had forced the submission of all Rajputs, refused to sup with Raja Man Singh. The lines were completely drawn now - Akbar understood that Maharana Pratap would never submit and he would have to use his troops against Mewar.
With the failure of efforts to negotiate a peace treaty in 1573, Akbar blockaded Mewar from the rest of the world and alienated Mewar's traditional allies, some of whom were Maharana Pratap's own kith and kin. Akbar then tried to turn the people of the all-important Chittor district against their king so they would not help Pratap. He appointed Kunwar Sagar Singh, a younger brother of Pratap, to rule the conquered territory, However, Sagar, regretting his own treachery, soon returned from Chittor, and committed suicide with a dagger in the Mughal Court. Shakti Singh, Pratap's younger brother now with the Mughal army, is said to have fled the Mughal court temporarily and warned his brother of Akbar's actions.
In preparation for the inevitable war with the Mughals, Maharana Pratap altered his administration. He moved his capital to Kumbhalgarh, where he was born. He commanded his subjects to leave for the Aravali mountains and leave behind nothing for the approaching enemy - the war would be fought in a mountain terrain which the Mewar army was used to but not the Mughals. It is a testament to the young king's respect amongst his subjects that they obeyed him and left for the mountains. The Bhils of the Aravalis were completely behind him. The army of Mewar now raided Mughal trade caravans going from Delhi to Surat. A section of his army guarded the all important Haldighati Pass, the only way to get into Udaipur from the North. Maharana Pratap himself undertook several penances, not because his finances forced him to do so, but because he wished to remind himself, and all his subjects, why they were undertaking this pain - to win back their freedom, their right to exist as they wished. He foreswore that he would eat from leaf-plates, would sleep on the floor and would not shave. In his self-inflicted state of penury, the Maharana lived in mud-huts made from mud and bamboo.
In 1576, the famous battle of Haldighati was fought with 20,000 Rajputs against a Mughal army of 80,000 men commanded by Raja Man Singh. The battle was fierce though indecisive, to the Mughal army's astonishment. Maharana Pratap's army was not defeated but Maharana Pratap was surrounded by Mughal soldiers. It is said that at this point, his estranged brother, Shakti Singh, appeared and saved the Rana's life. Another casualty of this war was Maharana Pratap's famous, and loyal, horse Chetak, who gave up his life trying to save his Maharana.
After this war, Akbar tried several times to take over Mewar, failing each time. Maharana Pratap himself was keeping up his quest for taking Chittor back. However, the relentless attacks of the Mughal army had left his army weaker, and he barely had enough money to keep it going. It is said that at this time, one of his ministers, Bhama Shah, came and offered him all this wealth - a sum enabling Maharana Pratap to support an army of 25,000 for 12 years. It is said that before this generous gift from Bhama Shah, Maharana Pratap, anguished at the state of his subjects, was beginning to lose his spirit in fighting Akbar.

In one incident that caused him extreme pain, his children's meal - bread made from grass - was stolen by a dog. It is said that this cut into Maharana Pratap's heart deeply. He began to have doubts about his resolute refusal to submit to the Mughals. Perhaps in one of these moments of self doubt - something each and every human being goes through - Maharana Pratap wrote to Akbar demanding "a mitigation of his hardship". Overjoyed at this indication of his valiant foe's submission, Akbar commanded public rejoicing, and showed the letter to a literate Rajput at his Court, Prince Prithiraj. He was the younger brother of Rai Singh, the ruler of Bikaner, a State established some eighty years earlier by the Rathores of Marwar. He had been compelled to serve Akbar because of his kingdom's submission to the Mughals. An award-winning poet, Prithiraj was also a gallant warrior and a longtime admirer of the brave Maharana Pratap Singh. He was astonished and grieved by Maharana Pratap's decision, and told Akbar the note was the forgery of some foe to defame the Mewar king. "I know him well," he explained, "and he would never submit to your terms." He requested and obtained Akbar's permission to send a letter to Pratap, ostensibly to ascertain the fact of his submission, but really with a view to prevent it. He composed the couplets that have become famous in the annals of patriotism:
The hopes of the Hindu rest on the Hindu; yet the Rana forsakes them. But for Pratap, all would be placed on the same level by Akbar; for our chiefs have lost their valour and our females their honour. Akbar is the broker in the market of our race: he has purchased all but the son of Udai (Singh II of Mewar); he is beyond his price. What true Rajput would part with honour for nine days (nauroza); yet how many have bartered it away? Will Chittor come to this market ...? Though Patta (an affectionate name for Pratap Singh) has squandered away wealth (on warfare), yet he has preserved this treasure. Despair has driven man to this market, to witness their dishonour: from such infamy the descendant of Hamir (Hamir Singh) alone has been preserved. The world asks, from where does the concealed aid of Pratap emanate? None but the soul of manliness and his sword ... The broker in the market of men (Akbar) will one day be surpassed; he cannot live forever. Then will our race come to Pratap, for the seed of the Rajput to sow in our desolate lands. To him all look for its preservation, that its purity may again become resplendent.
The now-famous letter led to Pratap reversing his decision and not submitting to the Mughals, as was his initial but reluctant intention. After 1587, Akbar relinquished his obsessive pursuit of Maharana Pratap and took his battles into Punjab and India's Northwest Frontier. Thus for the last ten years of his life, Maharana Pratap ruled in relative peace and eventually freed most of Mewar, including Udaipur and Kumbhalgarh, but not Chittor. Bhagwat Singh Mewar: "Maharana Pratap Singh (was) called the light and life of the Hindu community. There were times when he and his family and children ate bread made of grass." Maharana Pratap became a patron of the Arts. During his reign Padmavat Charita and the poems of Dursa Ahada were written. Palaces at Ubheshwar, Kamal Nath and Chavand bear testimony to his love of architecture. These buildings, built in the dense hilly forest have walls adorned with military-style architecture. But Pratap's broken spirit overpowered him in the twilight of his years. His last moments were an appropriate commentary on his life, when he swore his successor, Crown Prince Amar Singh to eternal conflict against the foes of his country's independence. Maharana Pratap was never able to win back Chittor but he never gave up fighting to win it back.
In January 1597, Rana Pratap Singh I, Mewar's greatest hero, was seriously injured in a hunting accident. He left his body at Chavand, aged 56, on January 29, 1597. He died fighting for his nation, for his people, and most importantly for his honor.

Source : www. chittorgarh. com/maharanapratap. asp

Friday, July 11, 2008

New nickel: Rs 10 coins set to roll

NEW DELHI: "New era" coins including a Rs 10 coin, designed by the National Institute of Design (NID), are set to enter the market soon. According to a senior finance ministry official, the new coins are more user-friendly and aesthetic but no date has been finalised for their introduction. The new coins would be made of ferratic stainless steel and nickel-bronze as a security measure against counterfeit coins. Currently, coins in India are issued in denominations of 10, 20, 25 and 50 paisa (small coins) and Rs 1, Rs 2 and Rs 5 (rupee coins). But coins can be issued up to the denomination of Rs 1,000 as per the Coinage Act, 1906. The NID design team, after studying various automated vending machines and other coin-operated machines, has reportedly ensured the compatibility of the new coins with these machines. It would be disabled-friendly also. The printing of notes in the denomination of Re 1 and Rs 2 has been discontinued as these denominations have been coinised. However, such notes issued earlier are still in circulation. Though the printing of notes in denomination of Rs 5 had also been discontinued, it has been decided to reintroduce these notes in order to meet the demand for Rs 5 coins. Coins are minted at five government mints -- Mumbai, Alipara, Saifabad, Chelapally and Noida. There are about 3,784 coin depots spread through the country. According to a senior RBI official, "There will be alterations in currency also, but the changes envisioned this time are much more simple. The notes would retain their crisp feel and crackling sound." The official adds, "The most important aspect is that the year of printing will be featured on all notes. Till now, it was embossed on coins only. The year will now be incorporated on the reverse of the note while printing." The new currency notes are likely to be thicker, heavier and will have dual-coloured optical fibre. The Ashoka Pillar emblem will be more prominent and there will will be more security-related features. The new notes will be introduced in a phased manner and accordingly all banks have already been asked to make the necessary preparations to handle the changes.
Note : Subject taken from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1139697.cms

Monday, June 30, 2008

Vijayanagar

The History of VIJAYANAGAR:-
Hampi is situated on the Southern bank of the Tungabhadra river, in Hospet Taluk, in Bellary District of Karnataka State, India(lat. 15ο-20', long. 76ο-25'). With the blessings and guidance of Sri Vidyaranya Swamy,the Jagadguru of the Sri Sarada Peetham, Sringeri, on Saturday, 4th May 1336 (corresponding to S.S. 1258, Dhatri, Vaisakha, Su, 7, Pusya, Hari), Vira Harihara, at Hampi, celebrated his coronation as the king of the just founded kingdom. Simultaneously the construction of a new capital city began with the name of Vijayanagara- Victory City. The kingdom came to be called after its capital city. The idea that a new city built around the Hemakuta hill originated in the mind of Sage Vidyaranya. He commanded his royal disciples, Harihara and Bukka, to give material shape to the idea.
They obeyed his command. Harihara entrusted to his younger brother Bukkaraya, whom he appointed as Yuvaraja the task of constructing the city. Accepting the orders of his Guru and his Sovereign, Bukka erected the new city. Vidyaranya supplied the idea; Harihara gave the necessary sanction and Bukka carried it into execution. It took seven years to complete the construction. In the year 1343A.D. the capital was shifted from Anagondi to the newely built city. Anegondi was the mother-city of Vijayanagara city. Just nine years earlier, in the year 1327 A.D., the Hindu kingdom of Kampila (with its capitals Kummata about 12kms northwest of Hampi and Hosamaledurga about 22kms south of Hampi) fell.
Its king Kampilaraya and his son Kumararama died in the battlefield safeguarding the land from Muslim invasions. This sacrifice did not go waste. From the ashes of Kummatta and Hosamaledurga arose the mighty empire of Vijayanagara in 1336A.D just after nine years. Foundation of Vijayanagara took place on the same soil amidst the two capitals of the erstwhile Kampila kingdom. The people connected with the governence of the old kingdom might have actively helped in the formation of the new.

Varaha was the Raja-Lanchana (State emblem) of the kingdom. The emblem was the picture of a boar facing a sword with the Sun and the Moon above. On the national flags the varaha figures were displayed and were known as Panni Kodi(Tamil)/Varaha Dwaja(Sanskrit). The highest denomination gold coins were named after the varaha and was called as such. As one among the ten Avatharas of Lord Sri Mahavishnu, Lord Varaha Swami was, since the days of the Chalukyas of Badami, Symbolically portrayed in the form of an animal of a boar.
A constitutional concept of those times was the use of sign manual. The Vijayanagara monarchs never affixed their personal signatures to the state documents. Instead they used the sign manual of 'Sri Virupaksha'. Sri Virupaksha(by which name Lord Siva is worshiped at Hampi) is the tutelary God of the kings of Vijayanagara.
This kingdom became the mighty Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1672) which ruled for 336 years the whole of peninsular India, South of the Tungabhadra- Krishna rivers with its influence, at times, extending to Sri Lanka. However the extent of territory depended largely on the personality of sovereign. Areas were added under strong kings and were lost under week ones. Goa was captured in 1369 during the reign of King Bukka I and was lost in 1471 during the reign of King Virupaksha II. Progressive reduction of territories began in 1565 when in that year the seat of government was shifted southwards from the Tungabhadra banks to the Pennar valley and in 1592 when it was once again shifted further south to the Swarnamukhi valley and once again sifted after some time still further south to the Palar river bank. The longest extra-territorial influence can be seen in an inscription of King Krishnadevaraya dated July 2nd of 1521 at the Vishnupada Temple, Gaya, Bihar. The empire was divided for the purposes of administration into a number of provinces called Rajyas. They were also known as Mandalams. A governor was appointed over each province by the central government at Vijayanagara. They enjoyed a good measure of local autonomy within their jurisdiction without interference from the central government as long as they discharged their obligation to it regularly. They held their own courts and maintained their own armies. Besides there were areas, which were administered through, feudal vassals who claimed to enjoy a semi-independent status. They had the same status and powers of Governors. These high officers were known by different names like Samantha’s, Nayakas, Dandanayakas, Mandaleswaras excetra.

Tuesday, June 17, 2008

Penny,Numismatic and Other Details

Penny Black : A British stamp first produced in 1840. It cost one penny and had a picture of Queen Victoria on it. Because it was the first stamp in the world there was no need to print the word ‘Britain’ on it, and even today British stamps do not have the country’s name on them. Penny Blacks are now quite rare and highly valued.
Penny: - senses 1 and 2, pennies are used to refer to the coins, and pence to refer to an amount of money. In sense 3, the plural is pennies.
A small British coin and unit of money. There are 100 pence in one pound (£1):He had a few pennies in his pocket. Ç That will be 45 pence, please. Ç They cost 20p each.
A British coin in use until 1971. There were twelve pennies in one shilling.
Numismatics: - the study of coins and medals
Numismatist: - person who collects or studies coins or medals.
Philatelist: - a person who collects or studies stamps.
Philately: - the collection and study of stamps.

The East India Company
An English company started in 1600 to develop trade in the East Indies (= the islands off the south-east coast of Asia, including Java and Borneo). By the 18th century it had its own army and political service, and was responsible for the administration of parts of India. In the early 19th century the company founded the modern Singapore, which became a British colony in 1826. The East India Company continued to increase its power in India, but after the Indian Mutiny in 1858 the British government took over its work there, and the company ceased to exist.

Details of English King and Queens

Prince William2 (1982– )

The first child of the Prince and Princess of Wales. He is sometimes called Wills in the press.

William I (also William the Conqueror) (c. 1027–87)

The king of England from 1066 to 1087. He was the Duke of Normandy, in northern France, when the English king Edward the Confessor died, and claimed that Edward had promised him the right to be the next king of England. He invaded England and defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Later that year he became king. He gave power and land in England to other Normans, and built many castles to control the English people.

William II (also William Rufus) (c. 1056–1100)

The king of England from 1087 to 1100. He became king when his father William I died. He was a skilful leader but his attempts to take money from his barons and the Church made him unpopular. He died in an accident while hunting, but many people think he was murdered so that his brother Henry I could be king. He was called Rufus, meaning red, because of the colour of his hair.

William III (also William of Orange) (1650–1702)

The king of Great Britain and Ireland from 1688 to 1702. He was a Dutch prince, married to Mary, the daughter of James II. They were invited by British Protestants to be the king and queen of Britain in order to prevent the Roman Catholic James II from being king. William became king in the Bloodless Revolution and defeated the forces of James II in Ireland at the Battle of the Boyne. He is remembered by a group of Protestants in Northern Ireland who are opposed to Ireland becoming one republic, and call themselves Orangemen. See also William and Mary.

William IV (1765–1837)

The king of Great Britain and Ireland from 1830 to 1837. He was the son of George III and spent many years in the Royal Navy. He is also remembered for having had ten illegitimate children (= ones born outside marriage) with a female actor. His most important action was to create 50 new Whig (1) peers to vote for the Reform Act against the Tories in Parliament who were opposed to it.

Edward the Confessor (c. 1003–66)

The king of England from 1042 to 1066, a son of Ethelred the Unready. He was considered a very holy man, and in 1161 the Pope made him a saint and gave him the title of ‘Confessor’. However, he does not seem to have been very interested in government, and there was great confusion when he died over who had been promised the throne of England. His brother-in-law Harold Godwin became king, but was soon removed by William of Normandy in the Norman Conquest of 1066.

Prince Henry5 (1984– )

The second child of the Prince and Princess of Wales. He is usually called Prince Harry by the British press and public.

Henry I (1068–1135) king of England (1100–35).

The youngest of three sons of William I, he became king when his eldest brother William II died, because his other brother Robert was away on a Crusade. Henry improved the administrative system of the country and established a system by which judges travelled around the country giving justice.

Henry II (1133–89) king of England (1154–89).

He was the grandson of Henry I, succeeded King Stephen, and was the first Plantagenet king. He reduced the power of the barons and increased the power of the state. He wanted to reduce the power of the Church, which led to his dispute with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, which ended in Becket’s murder. During his rule England established control over Ireland. Henry also introduced various systems of justice which can be seen as the beginning of common law.

Henry III (1207–72) king of England (1216–72)

and the son of King John. He was not popular with the barons, who disliked his use of foreign people to advise him and criticized him for poor judgement in financial matters. In 1264, Simon de Mont fort led a rebellion of the barons and Henry was defeated and put in prison. He took back power in 1265 after a battle in which the rebels were defeated by an army led by Henry’s son (later Edward I).

Henry IV (1366–1413) king of England (1399–1413)

after his cousin Richard II. He was born Henry Bolingbrook, the son of John of Gaunt, and was a leading opponent of Richard’s. In 1398 Richard sent him into exile, but in 1399 he returned to England, defeated Richard and was accepted as king by Parliament. While he was king there were rebellions against him in Wales and the north of England. He was forced to accept the principle that the king should govern through Parliament, and in 1407 Parliament took control of the country’s financial affairs.
Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2 two plays (c. 1597–8) by Shakespeare based on the period when Henry IV was king of England. The play’s main characters are Prince Hal (Henry IV’s son and later Henry V) and his friend Falstaff. In Part 1 Hal drinks and jokes with Falstaff and others in the Boar’s Head, a London tavern (= old pub), and his father worries that he is not serious enough to become a king. However, at the end he accepts his responsibilities and fights in a battle to defeat a rebellion against his father. In Part 2, Hal is still friendly with Falstaff, but when Henry IV dies and Hal becomes king, he rejects him with the famous line: ‘I know thee not, old man’.

Henry V (1387–1422) king of England (1413–22)

and son of Henry IV. He is regarded as a symbol of English patriotism (= love of one’s own country), especially because of Shakespeare’s play Henry V. He took an English army to France during the Hundred Years War and defeated the French at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), putting an area of France under English control.
Henry V a play (1599) by Shakespeare which celebrates the military victories in France of King Henry V. It contains several famous patriotic speeches, including the famous speech before the battle. There have been two film versions, the first in 1944, directed by Laurence Olivier with himself as Henry, and the second in 1989, directed by Kenneth Branagh who also played the title role.

Henry VI (1421–71) king of England (1422–61 and 1470–1)

and son of Henry V. He was not popular, mainly because England finally lost the Hundred Years War while he was king. Opposition to him led to the Wars of the Roses, in which the House of Lancaster was defeated by the House of York and Henry was put in prison. As a result of this, Edward became king, but in 1470, with the help of the powerful Earl of Warwick, known as Warwick the Kingmaker, Henry became king again, but he was defeated once more in 1471. He was put in the Tower of London, where he was murdered, and Edward became king again. Henry established Eton College and King’s College, Cambridge.
Henry VI, Parts 1, 2 and 3 three plays (c. 1590–92) by Shakespeare, set during the period of the Wars of the Roses. They are among Shakespeare’s earliest plays and some people believe that he may only have written parts of them.

Henry VII (1457–1509) king of England (1485–1509),

the first Tudor (1) king. Born Henry Tudor, he was brought up in France. In 1485 he led a rebellion against Richard III, defeated him at the Battle of Bosworth Field and became king. In 1486 he married the daughter of Edward, uniting the House of Lancaster (to which he belonged) and the House of York and so bringing the Wars of the Roses to an end. Although there were rebellions during his rule, including those led by Lambert Simnel and Perkin War beck, Henry established greater order in the country, introduced a more modern system of government and greatly improved the country’s financial position.

Henry VIII (1491–1547) king of England (1509–47)

and son of Henry VII. He is one of the most famous of all English kings, partly because he had six wives. For political reasons, he married Catherine of Aragon, the wife of his dead brother Arthur, just after he became king. They had a daughter, later Mary I, but because they did not have a son who could be the future king, Henry decided to divorce her. The Pope refused to give the necessary permission for this, so Henry removed England from the Catholic Church led by the Pope and made himself head of the Church in England. This act, together with others such as the Dissolution of the Monasteries, was the beginning of the establishment of Protestantism in England. Henry divorced Catherine of Aragon and married Anne Boleyn in 1533. They had a daughter, later Elizabeth I, but Henry had Anne executed for adultery. His third wife was Jane Seymour, who died giving birth to a son (later Edward VI). Henry married his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, for political reasons, but soon divorced her and in 1540 he married Catherine Howard. She too was executed for adultery. Henry’s sixth and last wife was Catherine Parr. As a young man Henry was known for his love of hunting, sport and music, but he did not rule well and the country was in a weak and uncertain state when he died. See also Cromwell. See also Green sleeves. See also More, Wolsey.
Henry VIII a play (1613) by Shakespeare, possibly the last he wrote. Some people believe he wrote it with somebody else, perhaps John Fletcher. It is about events surrounding King Henry VIII’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

George I (1660–1727) king of Great Britain and Ireland (1714–27).

He was the first of the Hanoverian kings and came to Britain from Germany on the death of Queen Anne. He was not popular in Britain, mainly because he did not learn to speak English, and because he arrived with two German lovers who were not liked by the British people. He did not get involved in British politics, leaving most decisions to the Cabinet, which became much more important during his time as king.

George II (1683–1760) king of Great Britain and Ireland (1727–60).

He was the only son of George I and, like his father, was not very interested in the government of Britain, allowing the development of the constitutional monarchy. He was, however, interested in the army, and fought against the French in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–8). He was the last British king to lead his army into a battle.

George III (1738–1820) king of Great Britain and Ireland (1760–1820).

He was the grandson of King George II. He was very interested in the government of Britain, and worked closely with prime ministers such as Lord North and William Pitt. He was strongly opposed to American independence, and was blamed by the public for losing the war of the American Revolution. He suffered from illness for some periods of his life and in 1811 he became so ill that his son was made Prince Regent.

George IV (1762–1830) king of Great Britain and Ireland (1820–30).

Before becoming king, he ruled as Prince Regent because his father George III was ill. He had many lovers and shocked many people by the way he lived, spending a lot of time eating, drinking and gambling.

George V (1865–1936) king of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1910–36).

He was the son of Edward VII. He became popular with the British people for supporting the British armed forces in World War I. In 1917 he dropped all his German titles and changed the family name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor1 (2).

George VI (1895–1952) king of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1936–52).

He was the second son of George V and became king after the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. He was greatly admired by the British people during World War II for staying in London when it was being bombed. He was the last British king to be called ‘emperor’ and the first head of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Prince Edward (1964– )
Earl of Wessex, the fourth child of Queen Elizabeth II. He was educated at Gordonstoun in Scotland and at Cambridge University, where he studied history. He joined the Royal Marines in 1986, but left the next year to begin a career producing plays for the theatre and films for television. In 1999 he married Sophie Rhys-Jones. Their daughter, Lady Louise Windsor, was born in 2003.

Edward I (1239–1307)
The king of England from 1272 to 1307, the oldest son of Henry III. He spent a lot of time trying to control Wales and Scotland, fighting, among others, William Wallace and Robert the Bruce. As a result he was called the ‘Hammer of the Scots’. In 1296 he brought the Stone of Scone to England.

Edward II (1284–1327)
The king of England from 1307 to 1327, the son of Edward I and the first Prince of Wales. He took his armies to Scotland, but was defeated at the Battle of Bannock burn (1314) by Robert the Bruce. He was a weak king who upset the English barons, and in 1327 his son Edward III replaced him. Later that year he was murdered.

Edward III (1312–77)
The king of England from 1327 to 1377, the son of Edward II. He had continuing problems with the Scots, but he had some success in his attempts to become the king of France, for example at the battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1355). After his death his grandson became the king of England as Richard II, because his son Edward, the Black Prince, had died the year before. See also Hundred Years War.

Edward IV (1442–83)
The king of England from 1461 to 1470 and from 1471 to 1483. He was the son of Richard, Duke of York3 (3). In 1461 his army defeated the soldiers of Henry VI of the House of Lancaster. Edward had the support of the powerful Earl of Warwick, known as Warwick the Kingmaker, to whom he was related, but in 1470 he lost this support and also for a short time his throne (to Henry VI). After the defeat of Warwick and Henry in 1471, England had a period of great stability under Edward, who encouraged the development of art, music, etc. as well as the new science of printing. See also Wars of the Roses.

Edward V (1470–83)
The king of England for three months in 1483, a son of Edward IV. It is generally believed that his uncle, who took the throne by force to become King Richard III, murdered Edward V and his younger brother. See also Princes in the Tower.

Edward VI (1537–53)
The king of England from 1547 to 1553. He was the son of King Henry VIII and his third wife Jane Seymour, and the half-brother (= brother by a different mother) of Mary I and Elizabeth I. He became king at the age of ten, so other people, called regents governed on his behalf. One of them persuaded him to change his will, giving the throne to Lady Jane Grey, but the plan failed and Mary became queen when Edward died. During this period, with Edward’s support, England became much more strongly Protestant, so that Mary was unable to change it back to Catholicism.

Edward VII (1841–1910)
The king of Great Britain and Ireland from 1901 to 1910, the son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. He was the Prince of Wales for most of his life, while his mother ruled. Victoria did not let him play much part in state affairs, so he spent most of his time at social events, such as parties, horse racing, etc. When she died in 1901, he became a popular king. His reign was a period of peace and economic success before World War I.

Edward VIII (1894–1972)
The eldest son of King George V. He became the king of Great Britain and Ireland when his father died in January 1936, but never had the crown officially placed on his head. He had fallen in love with Mrs. Simpson, an American who was divorced, and it was not acceptable at that time that he should marry her and remain king. So in December 1936, he abdicated (= gave up his position as king) and his brother became King George VI, giving Edward the title of Duke of Windsor. Edward married Mrs. Simpson in June 1937, and they lived in France for many years. See also abdication crisis.

George I (1660–1727)
King of Great Britain and Ireland (1714–27). He was the first of the Hanoverian kings and came to Britain from Germany on the death of Queen Anne. He was not popular in Britain, mainly because he did not learn to speak English, and because he arrived with two German lovers who were not liked by the British people. He did not get involved in British politics, leaving most decisions to the Cabinet, which became much more important during his time as king.

George II (1683–1760)
King of Great Britain and Ireland (1727–60). He was the only son of George I and, like his father, was not very interested in the government of Britain, allowing the development of the constitutional monarchy. He was, however, interested in the army, and fought against the French in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–8). He was the last British king to lead his army into a battle.

George III (1738–1820)
King of Great Britain and Ireland (1760–1820). He was the grandson of King George II. He was very interested in the government of Britain, and worked closely with prime ministers such as Lord North and William Pitt. He was strongly opposed to American independence, and was blamed by the public for losing the war of the American Revolution. He suffered from illness for some periods of his life and in 1811 he became so ill that his son was made Prince Regent.

George IV (1762–1830)
King of Great Britain and Ireland (1820–30). Before becoming king, he ruled as Prince Regent because his father George III was ill. He had many lovers and shocked many people by the way he lived, spending a lot of time eating, drinking and gambling.

George V (1865–1936)
King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1910–36). He was the son of Edward VII. He became popular with the British people for supporting the British armed forces in World War I. In 1917 he dropped all his German titles and changed the family name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor1 (2).

George VI (1895–1952)
King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1936–52). He was the second son of George V and became king after the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. He was greatly admired by the British people during World War II for staying in London when it was being bombed. He was the last British king to be called ‘emperor’ and the first head of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Queen Victoria2 (1819–1901)
A British queen who ruled from 1837 to 1901. She was the granddaughter of King George III and became queen after the death of King William IV. Her rule was the longest of any British king or queen, and happened at the same time as Britain’s greatest period of world power and industrial development. In 1840 she married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. They had nine children. After Albert’s death Victoria took no further part in public affairs, but was persuaded to return by her Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who gained for her the title Empress of India. She is often remembered as a bad-tempered old woman who once said, ‘We are not amused.’ However in her early life she was a happy and enthusiastic queen who was very popular with ordinary people.

Prince Albert (1819–61)
The husband (and also cousin) of Queen Victoria. The son of a German duke, Albert married Victoria in 1840, and in 1857 he was given the title of Prince Consort. He took great interest in the arts, as well as business, science and technology, and was a strong influence behind the Great Exhibition of 1851. Albert died suddenly when he was only 42, and the Queen wore black clothes for the next 40 years as a sign of her great sadness.

Elizabeth I (1533–1603)
The queen of England and Ireland from 1558, after the death of her sister Mary I. She is regarded as one of England’s greatest rulers. The daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was an extremely strong and clever woman who controlled the difficult political and religious situation of the time with great skill. She once said to her soldiers before a battle, ‘I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England, too.’ During her reign the country’s economy grew very strong, the arts were very active, and England became firmly Protestant and confident in world affairs. However, Elizabeth is often seen as a very lonely figure and is known as the ‘Virgin Queen’ because she never married, although she is known to have had a relationship with the Earl of Leicester and, late in life, the Earl of Essex. See also Armada, Mary Queen of Scots.

Elizabeth II (1926– )
The queen of the United Kingdom since 1952. She is the daughter of King George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth. She had one sister, Princess Margaret. In 1947 she married Prince Philip of Greece, who had just been made the Duke of Edinburgh, in Westminster Abbey. Her father died in 1952 and Elizabeth was crowned on 2 June 1953. She is a highly respected and much loved monarch with a great interest in the Commonwealth. The Queen and Prince Philip have four children, Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward.
ò note at Royal Family Of the period of the British kings George I, II and III, most of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. British architecture, furniture and silver of this period are considered particularly attractive. Many British towns and cities have areas of simple but elegant Georgian houses. Some people also refer to the time of George IV as Georgian, while others call it Regency: a four-storey Georgian house.

Diana, Princess of Wales (also Princess Diana) (1961–1997)
The former wife of Prince Charles and the mother of Prince William and Prince Henry (Harry). Her name before she married was Lady Diana Spencer. The Spencer families are descended from the English kings Charles II and James II, and Diana’s father was the 8th Earl Spencer. She was married to Prince Charles in 1981 and soon became the most popular member of the royal family, often referred to informally as Di. However, the marriage failed and in 1992 the prince and princess separated. Although Princess Diana gave up her public duties and was divorced in 1996, she continued some of her work with charities and she remained an object of intense interest to the press and the public. She died in a car accident in Paris while trying to escape from photographers, and her funeral, like her wedding, was watched by almost a fifth of the world’s population.

Alfred the Great (849–99)
King of Wessex (871–99). He is remembered for defending England against Danish attacks, for establishing the English navy, and for encouraging education and the use of the English language. There is a popular story of King Alfred and the cakes. After a battle he was hiding in a woman’s house. Not knowing who he was, she told him to look after her cakes which were cooking by the fire, and then became very angry when he let them burn.

India Governors

Governors of the Reserve Bank of India
1) Sir Osborne A. Smith - April 1, 1935 to June 30, 1937

2) Sir James Braid Taylor - July 1, 1937 to February 17,1943

3) Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh - August 11, 1943 to June 30, 1949

4) Sir Benegal Rama Rau - July 1, 1949 to January 14, 1957

5) K. G. Ambegaonkar - January 14, 1957 to February 28, 1957

6) H. V. R. Iyengar - March 1, 1957 to February 28, 1962

7) P. C. Bhattacharyya - March 1, 1962 to June 30, 1967

8) LaxmiKanth Jha - July 1, 1967 to May 3, 1970

9) B. N. Adarkar - May 4, 1970 to June 15, 1970

10) S. Jagannathan - June 16, 1970 to May 19, 1975

11) N. C. Sen Gupta - May 19, 1975 to August 19, 1975

12) K. R. Puri - August 20, 1975 to May 2, 1977

13) M. Narasimham - May 2, 1977 to November 30, 1977

14) Dr. I. G. Patel - December 1, 1977 to September 15, 1982

15) Dr. Manmohan Singh - September 16, 1982 to January 14, 1985

16) Amitav Ghosh - January 15, 1985 to February 4, 1985

17) R. N. Malhotra - February 04,1985 to December 22, 1990

18) S. Venkitaramanan - December 22, 1990 to December 21, 1992

19) Dr. C. Rangarajan - December 22, 1992 to December 21, 1995December 22, 1995 to November 22, 1997

20) Dr. Bimal Jalan - November 22, 1997 to November 06, 2003

21) Sri. Yaga Venugopal Reddy - November 06, 2003 to September 05, 2008

22) Dr. Duvvuri Subbarao - September 05, 2008 Onwards